Calakmul: The Archaeology of a “Superpower”
by Ramon Carrasco
Deep in the jungles of the Yucatan Peninsula, the city of Calakmul rose to challenge the all-powerful city of Tikal in the Guatemalan Peten.
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Calakmul, even before the first archaeological work was initiated in the Eighties, awoke the interest of various researchers, who captured a glimmer of this grand Prehispanic site as an outstanding protagonist in the sociopolitical history of the Classic Maya period. The current epigraphic advances present this enigmatic urban center of the Campeche "Peten" as a "Superpower" that arose from the tropical forest in order to challenge the political hegemony of legendary Tikal.
Recent excavations carried out by the Archaeological Project of the Biosphere Reserve of Calakmul have contributed architectural information and ceramic materials that define the affiliations and spheres of influence in which this extensive metropolis participated during the more than 1,500 years that it remained inhabited. The archaeological and restoration endeavors complement the epigraphic and settlement pattern information, allowing a glimpse of the cultural history of the site. Nevertheless, the archaeological research of Calakmul is still in its initial stages and as of yet doesn't allow confirmation of the declarations inferred from the inscriptions on the monuments. Calakmul, which for a long period of its history was associated with the traditions of the central Maya region, succeeded in that its influence could be felt as much in the south as in the north of its territory. Putting epigraphy to one side, the archaeological evidence suggests its participation in the spheres of the Guatemalan Peten, the Bec River areas and the south of Quintana Roo and the north of the Yucatan Peninsula.
To sum up the architectural and ceramic information contributed up to the present through the various buildings thus far examined, as much in the Grand Plaza and environs, as in the Grand Acropolis, we have a constructive sequence that embraces the greater pre-Classic period up until -- at least -- the terminal Classic, as well as which, according to ceramic material, dates the occupation of the site to the middle pre-Classic (900-300 B.C.) and which contains evidence of ritual activity in the late post-Classic period (1200-1450 A.D.), and even in the proto-historic (1450-1550 A.D.). We should point out that the results and inferences from the chronological sequence based on the ceramic materials that appear in the this article are contributions from archaeologist Sylviane Boucher. Data provided by the ceramics gives evidence that Calakmul participated in the historic development of the Maya area for 2,400 years, although the last 500 years are represented only through ritual ceramic (Boucher and Rojas, 1995). From its dawn, Calakmul was influenced from the south and from the north, demonstrating its role as an early geographic center of the Maya area, although it also participated in a regionalism that integrated the sites of El Mirador, Nakbe and Uaxactun. A century earlier, upon the collapse of the central Maya area, as a probable result of the defeat of its ruler, Jaguar Paw, the leaders of Calakmul intensified their political strategies toward the north, sharing in the bonanza of the peninsula.
In Maya archaeology, one of the most helpful methods to fix a relative date in architectural and urban evolution is the study of the discarded rubbish of each epoch sealed in the construction fill. At present, the architectural residue in Calakmul hasn't been identified, nor have clear remains of construction activity covering the earliest period, that is to say, the middle pre-Classic (900-300 B.C.), although it is to be supposed that at that time some public structures of importance could have been built or, at least, certain buildings were built that would be dedicated to functions of a ritualistic or administrative nature. The foregoing is deduced through analysis of the ceramic materials that show minimum activity associated with that period. The site closest to Calakmul with a predominant occupation during the middle pre-Classic period is Nakbe, whose administrative structure was left well established up to the end of that period. In Nakbe the architecture identified with that epoch consists of foundations and buildings that exceed twenty meters (66 ft.) in height.
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It is from the subsequent period -- the late pre-Classic (300 B.C. - 250 A.D.) -- that the first evidence of public architecture is found. Calakmul began to distinguish itself as one of the great centers of the Maya area. The monumental construction activity seems to be concentrated in the urban space of the Grand Plaza and to the southeast of it. It is probable that at that time the most massive structures were built in all of Calakmul's history and the spatial distribution of the central area of the site could be defined.
Structure II, which occupies the extreme south of the Grand Plaza, is a foundation of monumental proportions with a surface of more than 100 meters (331 ft.) on each side. The presence of pre-Classic ceramics in unsullied deposits at an open tunnel in this building shows that its fill corresponds to that of a substructure of the late pre-Classic era. Its sequence of construction preserves at least three substructures and four architectural phases: the first two, associated with ceramics in sealed contents; the second phase corresponds to the early Classic (250-600 A.D.) era.
Among the buildings in the Grand Plaza, others are found whose foundations are constructed using the same fill technique as in Structure II: one of these is Structure VI, with material from the late pre-Classic period which is found under the floor upon which the foundation is eradicated. Another building, possibly from the same period, would be Structure I, whose proportions are similar to those of Structure II. Because of the aforementioned, one may affirm that a close relationship exists between the ceramics and the architecture of Calakmul, and those of other sites to the northeast of the Peten, throughout the formative period. This suggests an early regionalization of the area.
During the early Classic (250-600 A.D.) era the structures of the formative period were modernized or modified, in some cases, and in other, partially demolished to construct new buildings. In the Grand Plaza, the north side of the foundation of Structure II was remodeled by applying a new covering and two enormous masks, of more than four meters (13 ft.) heights, on both sides of the central staircase. The huge masks, modeled in stucco, were decorated in red, black and blue. In that period, probably in front of Structure II, Stela 114 was erected, which bears the date of Long Count 8.19.15.12.13 (431 A.D.) (Marcus and Folan, 1994). In the east sector of the Grand Plaza, currently occupied by Structure IV, a foundation was dismantled in order to construct a building of two stories in the central portion that would be partially demolished in turn some forty years later, and supplanted by another with the same characteristics but of greater proportions.
The ceramics of the early Classic period, as well as those of the late pre-Classic, appeared in all the buildings that were inspected, all of which show continuous habitation where, aside from carrying out activities of a residential nature, rituals of a ceremonial nature were practiced. This period encompassed a greater presence of ceramics, these being produced in sealed contexts, as in Tomb 2 of Structure IV-B and in Tomb 1 in Structure III. This last structure -- which architecturally represents a "palace" of the Classic Peten style -- is one of the few buildings that suffered practically no modifications in the entire history of the site, suggesting that one of the most ancient lineages of Calakmul must have resided there.
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Unlike Structure III, Structure IV-B and had diverse alterations and modifications; because of that, it is a building with one of the most complete architectural sequences in Calakmul, which includes the high pre-Classic through the end of the Classic period. At the entrance of a substructure of Structure IV a carved dintel appears with the figure of a leader who emerges from a crevice in the monster of the Earth. It is probable that this character could be the legendary Cu-Ix, who since the 6th century was the principal protagonist in the alliances among Calakmul, Naranjo and Caracol in their struggle against the power of Tikal.
To the west of the Grand Plaza, in the urban sector of what would be the Great Acropolis in the late Classic period, temples and palaces were built. In the space that Structure XIII occupies, a substructure of a double passageway was detected that edges a foundation with a large central ramp and lateral stairways. The construction contains paneled walls with the same characteristics as the building of the Owl and the Cormorant in Dzibanche (Quintana Roo), dated as early Classic, which shows the relationship between Calakmul and the south of Quintana Roo. Also, some duplicated pieces appear; for example, funeral masks of black ceramic, like that found in Tomb 2 in Calakmul and like that located in Morocoy, a site near Dzibanche.
In contrast to El Mirador, where the relative scarcity of ceramic material from the early Classic period suggests a decline at the site, Calakmul begins to rise in that epoch as a power of the central Peten, with new architectural constructions, the remodeling of its buildings and the erection of stelae. The ceramics of this period found in the offerings and tombs of Structures III and IV are similar; among these offerings, the most beautifully elaborated monochrome vessels in the Peten are found.
During the first half of the late Classic period (600-700 A.D.) Calakmul keeps its political hegemony in the central Maya area and, according to the references deciphered in the inscriptions in other cities, its influence increases noticeably. It is in this lapse when the greatest number of epigraphic texts are found (approximately 80 glyphs, among emblems and toponyms) that allude to the kingdom of the glyph-emblem of the "serpent" K'ul Kanal Ahaw, or Divine Lord of the Serpent. Their traditional allies as well as their enemies relate various events concerning the personages and lineages of this "Superpower" (Martin, 1994). As we have already mentioned, the most dramatic event was the capture of Jaguar Paw, one of the most noteworthy rulers of Calakmul, on the 5th of August, 695 A.D., at the hands of Hasaw Ka'an K'awil, Lord of Tikal. With this historic deed, the elite of Calakmul was obligated to modify its political strategy, re-establishing itself northward within its territory.
Throughout the entire late Classic period (600-800 A.D.) Calakmul is found to have reached its peak epoch. The majority of the stelae were erected in this period and the high percentage of ceramics of the period, along with those of the early Classic period, show the greatest occupancy of the site. In the late Classic period architectural activity increases substantially with the remodeling and construction of other structures that change the image of the urban space belonging to the early Classic period. Various structures are totally redecorated: Structure II receives new resurfacing and on top of the foundation Structures II-B, II-C and II-D were built; Structure IV is partially remodeled with new rooms that are added to those already there, although it retains its original volumetry.
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The ceramics from the late Classic period are extensively represented, appearing in all the buildings inspected and in sealed mixtures in Tombs 1 and 2 in Structure II, Tomb 1 in Structure VII, Tomb 1 in Structure XIII and Tombs 1, 2 and 3 in Structure XV. Structure VII, which had undergone modifications in the early Classic period, is newly remodeled and remains in use, the same as the rest of the buildings in the Grand Plaza.
At present, other urban areas in the site gain importance, in particular the Great Acropolis. The ball court (Structure XI) and Structure XIII, situated on public space in Plaza 1 of the Great Acropolis, are representative of the second half of the late Classic era. Structure XV, with two successive architectural phases, would correspond to the transition between the first and second half of that period. The five stelae that precede Structure XV are divided in two groups that contain dates that go from 9.13.0.0.0 (692 A.D.) to 9.15.0.0.0 (731 A.D.). The first group (Stelae 73, 75 and 77) would correspond to the construction of the building, as would the second group (Stelae 74 and 76) to its remodeling. According to the dates, the building was ordered to be built during the rule of Jaguar Paw and its remodeling was carried out after his capture. Another of the occurrences that would mark the transition between the first and second half of the late Classic period was the construction of the ball court, built after the year 731 A.D. The date is inscribed in Stela 66 and was broken into four fragments and placed as construction material in the corners of the walls that delineate the ball game court.
In Structure XIII a cruciform roofed aisle is located which was constructed in the late Classic era, as the substructure was sealed off. In recent studies of Maya archaeology an interpretation suggests that urban arrangement of plazas represents mythological landscapes. The spatial relationship between the ball game court and the sheltered aisle of Structure XIII possibly prefigures one of these symbolic arrangements, that one in which the twins from the Popol Vuh descended to the underworld in order to participate in the ball game with the Lords from Xibalba.
In contrast with the ceramics of the late Classic period from El Mirador, which is restricted to the pottery typical of the northeast of the Peten although having its own characteristics, that of Calakmul presents more vast inter-regional relationships, especially toward the Bec River area, through the presence of imported polychrome vessels and incense burners representing stylized owls, and ever farther to the north, as far as the region including Edzna and the island of Jaina. This situation is also reflected in the architecture; in the Grand Plaza Structures V and VI were remodeled, and although the architects respected the configuration of the foundations and the distribution of the stelae, they constructed the upper part of the buildings in the Bec River style or that of the central Yucatec region. This new architecture introduced construction techniques and decorative elements, among which the execution of the square hewn stones that cover the walls and the ample space of the interiors. The use of baseboard moldings appeared in the construction of buildings, some with little tambours and smooth quirks, that represent architectural elements of the peninsular tradition. The foregoing notwithstanding, Calakmul continued interacting with the region of the Peten.
If we observe Calakmul from the viewpoint of the central Peten, it would seem that the second half of the late Classic period initiated its decline, given that at the time the number of outside references to the site diminished drastically, it only appears in 24 of the 102 stelae that are known for the entire period (Martin, 1994). At the site itself, the monuments with inscriptions -- from 700 to 800 A.D. -- number only 18. Nevertheless, the presence of 25 uninscribed stelae, corresponding to the central Yucatec region, is another element that suggests a political reorientation toward the north. This concurs with the cultural swing that set forth for Calakmul up until the 8th century. The occupancy of Calakmul continued through the terminal Classic period (800 - 1000 A.D.); some buildings were remodeled, such as Structure IV, and others were constructed, such as Structure X, where Stelae 63, 64 and 65 were installed, with the last known dates for Calakmul (810 A.D.). Faced with the collapse of the traditions of the Peten, Calakmul became integrated with the development of the north of the peninsula through its architecture and its ceramics, associated not only with the decline of the Bec River region but with the flourishing culture of the north of the peninsula.
The ceremonial activity in Calakmul in vigor during the late post-Classic era (1200 - 1450 A.D.) with offerings of anthropomorphic incense burners and fire rituals. The presence in some buildings in Calakmul of effigy incense burners and other -- dated as delineators of the late post-Classic period -- testifying to human activity in the Peten of Campeche from the 13th through the 14th or 15th centuries. Nevertheless, regarding their architecture, no construction activity appears that corresponds to this last period. There only appears to have been a temporary occupancy, taking advantage of the buildings that still remained standing in order to carry out some ceremonies. In Structure IV-B in the front room on the first floor this type of activity is evident; an offering was hung in a fire ritual that used anthropomorphic, modeled heads and deities that originally formed part of the decoration in stucco of the battlements of the building. In this same area, incense burners were recovered with modeled faces from the proto-historical period that had been reported for the north of Belize.
Starting with Marcus' investigation (1976), the theoretical suppositions regarding the political organization of the central Maya area have turned on the point of a centralized power distributed in a four-part system of great ruling centers. These regional capitals kept cities of minor range and political status under their subordination. Based on reading the glyphic texts on the Stela 10 of Seibal and Stela A of Copan, Marcus proposes the existence of four regional capitals. During the Classic period these chief cities must have been Copan, not unexpectedly, Tikal, Palenque and the fourth, that of the glyph emblem of the "serpent," Calakmul. More recently, Martin and Grube (1995) present Calakmul as a "Superpower" a confessed enemy of its rival to power, Great Tikal, with whom they disputed the hegemony of the central Maya area during the Classic period.
Based on information that the epigraphic investigation provides us and the dynastic successions assigned by the rulers of the central Peten, it is to be deduced that the region of Calakmul figured prominently in the sociopolitical life of the area, principally in the 6th and 7th centuries after Christ. This importance is upheld by the presence of the glyph-emblem of the "serpent," more than by the monuments typical of Calakmul, beyond its territorial limits, in the texts such as those from Naranjo, Caracol, Palenque, Yaxchilan, Piedras Negras, El Peru and Dos Pilas, among other enclaves, which should have been its allies and even its vassals. The historical construction of Calakmul is limited by the poor preservation of its monuments, where very few complete phrases are conserved referring to its rulers and to their public acts. As an alternative to this difficulty, the numerous references have been resorted to in other sites.
Nevertheless, new monuments with inscriptions have facilitated the confirmation that the governing classes of Calakmul played a preponderant role in the politics of the central Maya area, at least up until the 7th century. As we have mentioned, Jaguar Paw was defeated at the end of that century. His name on the glyph has been identified for the first time in Calakmul on Stela 116, recently located in Structure II (Marcus and Folan, 1994).
In the late Classic period, the personages of the zone of the Serpent are identified by a generic title, Yukom, or the toponym Oxte' Tun and Chik Nab, which makes their identification difficult as rulers of Calakmul. The ample distribution of the glyph of the serpent head and the toponyms that bear reference to this entity, suggests that they allude to a region where a determined number of urban centers participated as allies, forming what could be considered as the Kingdom of Calakmul. The recent discovery of a hieroglyphic stairway in Dzibanche reinforces the distribution of the glyph of the serpent head toward the south of Quintana Roo, implying that during the late Classic period under the mentioned emblem, local powers grouped in turn in Calakmul.
Translated from the Spanish by Marlene van Albrecht.
Ramon Carrasco is the Director of the Archaeological Project of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve. This article was published in Spanish by ARQUEOLOGIA MEXICANA, Vol. III, Number 18 and may be acquired by writing Editorial Raices, Avenida Taxqueña #1798, Colonia Paseos de Taxqueña, Mexico City, Mexico. We are grateful to Monica del Villar at Editorial Raices for her kind cooperation.
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